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- From: Jim Rosenfield <jnr@igc.apc.org>
- Newsgroups: talk.politics.drugs
- Date: 06 Aug 94 10:58 PDT
- Subject: NYTimes: Is Nicotine Addictive?
- Message-ID: <1484000623@cdp>
-
- Is Nicotine Addictive? It Depends on Whose Criteria You Use
-
- Experts say the definition of addiction is evolving.
-
- By Philip J. Hilts
-
- THE NEW YORK TIMES, SCIENCE, AUG 2, 1994
-
- (Posted here without permission, to be used for
- discussion purposes only. For any commercial use,
- please contact the New York Times)
-
- WASHINGTON - When heavily dependent users of cocaine are asked to
- compare the urge to take cocaine with the urge to smoke
- cigarettes, about 45 percent say the urge to smoke is as strong
- or stronger than that for cocaine.
-
- Among heroin' addicts, about 3 percent rank the urge to smoke as
- equal to or stronger than the urge to take heroin. Among those
- addicted to alcohol, about 50 percent say the urge to smoke is at
- least as strong as the urge to drink.
-
- Yet seven chief executives of tobacco companies testified under
- oath before a Congressional subcommittee in April that nicotine
- was not addictive. Experts in addiction disagree with that
- assessment, hut they say that the definition of addiction is
- evolving, and that they can see how such a statement might be
- made.
-
- Hearings on SmokIng
-
- This week, the Food and Drug Administration is holding hearings
- to consider whether cigarettes fit in the array of addictive
- drugs and whether the Government should regulate them.
-
- The standard definition of addiction comes from the American
- Psychiatric Association and the World Health Organization, which
- list nine criteria for determining addiction. The two groups,
- which prefer the term drug dependence, base their definition on
- research done since the 1960's, which has determined that
- multiple traits must be considered in determining whether a
- substance is addictive. Thus although cigarettes do not offer as
- intense an effect as drugs like heroin and cocaine, they rank
- higher in a number of other factors. They not only create
- dependence among users but also elicit a high degree of
- tolerance, the need for more and more of drug to satisfy a
- craving. When all the factors are added up, the consensus among
- scientists is that nicotine is strongly addictive.
-
- In smoking, it is not the nicotine addiction that is most
- harmful, but other toxic chemicals produced by burning tobacco,
- which cause most of the 400,000 deaths each year that are
- attributed to smoking.
-
- Dr. Lynn T. Koslowski, an addiction expert at Pennsylvania State
- University, said addiction could generally be defined as "the
- repeated use of a psychoactive drug which is difficult to stop."
- He added that there might be many explanations for why it was
- hard to stop, including withdrawal that was too disturbing, or a
- high that was too enticing.
-
- A diagnosis of mild dependence on a psychoactive drug is
- determined by meeting three of the nine criteria. Five items
- show moderate dependence and seven items indicate a strong
- dependence. (Not all nine items apply to each drug. For example,
- time and effort spent acquiring a drug are a significant feature
- of heroin addiction, but have no meaning in nicotine addiction.)
-
- ADDICTION CRITERIA
-
- * Taking the drug more often or in larger amounts than intended.
-
- * Unsuccessful attempts to quit; persistent desire, craving.
-
- * Excessive time spent in drug seeking.
-
- * Feeling intoxicated at inappropriate times, or feeling
- withdrawal symptoms from a drug at such times.
-
- * Giving up other things for it.
-
- * Continued use, despite knowledge of harm to oneself and others.
-
- * Marked tolerance in which the amount needed to satisfy
- increases at first before leveling off.
-
- * Characteristic withdrawal symptoms for particular drugs.
-
- * Taking the drug to relieve or avoid withdrawal.
-
- Before applying a test of the nine criteria, the expert first
- determines if the symptoms have persisted for at least a month or
- have occurred repeatedly over a longer period of time.
-
- Asked about the tobacco executives' testimony on addiction, Dr.
- Kozlowski said, "In a way, I can see how they could say that. It
- has to do with a mistaken image of what addiction is, and I have
- many well-educated, intelligent people say something like that to
- me. People often think of a person taking one injection of heroin
- and becoming hopelessly addicted for the rest of their lives.
- That is wrong."
-
- In addition, he said, when people tend to think of the high that
- heroin produces, one that is about as intense as cocaine and
- alcohol, they cannot believe cigarettes are in the same category.
- And they are not. Even though in large doses nicotine can cause a
- strong high and hallucinations, the doses used in cigarettes
- produce only a very mild high.
-
- But researchers now know, says Dr. Jack Henningfield, chief of
- clinical pharmacology at the Addiction Research Center of the
- Government's National Institute on Drug Abuse, that many
- qualities are related to a drug's addictiveness, and the level of
- intoxication it produces may be one of the least important.
-
- If one merely asks how much pleasure the drugs produce, as
- researchers used to do and tobacco companies still do, then
- heroin or cocaine and nicotine do not seem to be in the same
- category. Dr. Kozlowki said, "It's not that cigarettes are
- without pleasure, but the pleasure is not in the same ball park
- with heroin."
-
- But now, he said, there are more questions to ask. "If the
- question is How hard is it to stop? then nicotine
- a very impressive drug," he said. "Its urges are very similar to
- heroin."
-
- Among the properties of a psychoactive drug - how much craving it
- can cause, how severe is the withdrawal, how intense a high it
- brings - each addicting drug has its own profile.
-
- Heroin has a painful. powerful withdrawal, as does alcohol. But
- cocaine has little or no withdrawal. On the other hand, cocaine
- is more habit-forming in some respects, it is more reinforcing in
- the scientific terminology, meaning that animals and humans will
- seek to use it frequently in short periods of time, even over
- food and water.
-
- Drugs rank differently on the scale of how difficult they are to
- quit as well, with nicotine rated by most experts as the most
- difficult to quit.
-
- Moreover, it is not merely the drug that determines addiction,
- says Dr. john R. Hughes, an addiction expert at the University of
- Vermont. It is also the person, and the circumstances in the
- person's life. A user may be able to resist dependence at one
- time and not at another.
-
- A central property of addiction is the user's control over the
- substance. With all drugs. including heroin, many are occasional
- users. The addictive property of the substance can be measured by
- how many users maintain a casual habit and how many are
- persistent, regular users.
-
- According to large Government surveys of alcohol users, only
- about 15 percent are regular. dependent drinkers. Among cocaine
- users, about 8 percent become dependent. For cigarettes, the
- percentage is reversed. About 90 percent of smokers are
- persistent daily users, and 55 percent become dependent by
- official American Psychiatric Association criteria, according to
- a study by Dr. Naomi Breslau of the Henry Ford Health Sciences
- Center in Detroit. Only 10 percent are occasional users.
-
- Surveys also indicate that two-thirds to four-fifths of smokers
- want to quit but cannot, even after a number of attempts. Dr.
- John Robinson, a psychologist who works for the R. J. Reynolds
- Tobacco Company, contests the consensus view of nicotine as
- addictive. Using the current standard definition of addiction, he
- said at a recent meeting on nicotine addiction, he could not
- distinguish "crack smoking from coffee drinking, glue sniffing
- from jogging. heroin from carrots and cocaine from colas."
-
-
- It is not that Dr. Robinson and other scientists supported by
- tobacco companies disagree with the main points made by
- mainstream scientists. but that they define addiction
- differently. Dr. Robinson says intoxication that is
- psychologically debilitating is the major defining trait of an
- addicting substance. It is a feature that was part of standard
- definitions of the 1950's, and is still linked to popular ideas
- about addiction, but which experts now say is too simplistic and
- has been left behind as scientific evidence accumulates.
- HOW EXPERTS RATE PROBLEM SUBSTANCES
-
- Dr. Jack E. Henningfield of the National Institute on Drug Abuse
- and Dr. Neal L. Benowitz of the University of California at San
- Francisco ranked six substances based on five problem areas.
-
- Withdrawal: Presence and severity of characteristic withdrawal
- symptoms.
-
- Reinforcement: A measure of the substance's ability, in human
- and animal tests, to get users to take it again and again, and in
- preference to other substances.
-
- Tolerance: How much of the substance is needed to satisfy
- increasing cravings for it, and the level of stable need that is
- eventually reached.
-
- Dependence: How difficult it is for the user to quit, the relapse
- rate, the percentage of people who eventually become dependent,
- the rating users give their own need for the substance and
- the degree to which the substance will be used in the face of
- evidence that it causes harm.
-
- Intoxication: Though not usually counted as a measure of
- addiction in itself, the level of intoxication is associated with
- addiction and increases the personal and socIal damage a
- substance may do.
- COMPARATIVE DATA CHARTS
-
- 1 = Most serious 6 = Least serious
-
- HENNINGFIELD RATINGS
-
- Substance Withdrawal Reinforcement Tolerance Dependence Intoxication
-
- Nicotine 3 4 2 1 5
- Heroin 2 2 1 2 2
- Cocaine 4 1 4 3 3
- Alcohol 1 3 3 4 1
- Caffeine 5 6 5 5 6
- Marijuana 6 5 6 6 4
-
- BENOWITZ RATINGS
-
- Substance Withdrawal Reinforcement Tolerance Dependence Intoxication
-
- Nicotine 3* 4 4 1 6
- Heroin 2 2 2 2 2
- Cocaine 3* 1 1 3 3
- Alcohol 1 3 4 4 1
- Caffeine 4 5 3 5 5
- Marijuana 5 6 5 6 4
-
- *equal ratings
-
- ...........................................................
-
- Please forgive typos, all mine.........j
-
-
-